Memory- persistence of learning over time through the process of storage and retrieval of information
Encoding- processing of info into the memory system
Storage- retention of material over time
Retrieval- process of getting the information out of memory storage; retrieval failure is forgetting something, or not getting the info out of storage
Recall- retrieve information from your memory
Recognition- identify the target from possible targets
Flash Bulb Memory- clear moment of an emotionally significant event
Types of Memory
Sensory- immediate initial recording of sensory information stored for just an instant and most information goes unprocessed
Short Term- memory that holds a few items briefly; known as working memory
Long Term- permanent and limitless storehouse of memory; includes explicit and implicit memories
Explicit memories- episodic and semantic memories
Implicit memories- procedural and conditioned memories
Encoding information- primary effect, recency effect, serial positioning effect
Spacing effect- it is better if you spread out the time you take in information; do not cram
Encoding
Visual encoding- encoding of picture images
Acoustic encoding- encoding of sound, especially sounds of words
Semantic encoding- encoding of meaning
Constructive Memory- memories are not always what they seem; Elizabeth Loftus said constructed memory is a created memory
Forgetting- Retroactive interference is when new information blocks out old information; Proactive interference is when old information blocks new information
Storing memories- Long term potential: long lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously
Learning
Most learning is associative learning- certain events occur together
Three main types of learning- Classical conditioning / operant conditioning, Observational learning / latent learning, Abstract learning / insight learning
Classical conditioning- started with Ivan Pavlov, made up of 5 critical terms: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination
Acquisition- initial stage of learning; Phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR thus becoming the CS
Extinction- the diminishing if a conditioned response; will eventually happen when the UCS does not follow the CS
Spontaneous recovery- reappearance after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization- tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
Discrimination- learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
Unconditioned response (UCR)- unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
Conditioned stimulus (CS)- originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
Conditioned Response (CR)- learned response to a previous stimulus
Stages of Consciousness
Sleep- state of consciousness; less aware of our surroundings; includes conscious, subconscious, and unconscious
Biological Rhythms
Annual cycles- seasonal variations (bears hibernation, season affective disorder)
28 day cycle- menstrual cycle
24 hour cycle- our circadian rhythm- 24 hour biological clock; body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day
90 minute cycle-sleep cycles
Sleep Stages
5 identified stages; takes 90 to 100 mins to pass through the stages; brain waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in; First four stages are known as NREM sleep; the fifth stage is called REM sleep
Stage 1- Kind of awake and kind of asleep; lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night; eyes begin to roll slightly; brain produces Theta Waves (high amplitude, low frequency)(slow)
Stage 2- "baseline" of sleep; part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep; more Theta Waves that get progressively slower; begin to show sleep spindles- short bursts of rapid brain waves
Stage 3 and 4- Slow wave sleep; brain produces Delta waves; vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health
Stage 5:REM Sleep - Rapid Eye Movement; called paradoxical sleep; brain is very active; dreams usually occur; body is essentially paralyzed; composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep; breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken; From REM, go back to Stage 2
Cognition- another term for thinking, knowing, and remembering
Concepts- mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people; similar to Piaget’s idea of schemas
Prototypes- A mental image or best example of a category
Solving Problems
Algorithms- A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristics- rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; short cut
Insight- sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; no real strategy
Obstacles to problem solving
Confirmation Bias- tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
Fixation- inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Mental set- tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past
Functional Fixedness- tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Types of Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic- rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype; might cause us to ignore important information
Availability Heuristic- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory
Overconfidence- tendency to be more confident than correct; overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments
Framing- The way an issued is posed
Belief Bias- tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning; making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa
Belief Perseverance- Clinging to initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Language and Thought
Language- spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phonemes- the smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language
Morphemes- the smallest unit that carries meaning in a language; can be a word or part of a word
Grammar- system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others
Semantics- set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language
Syntax- rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Language Development
Babbling Stage- the infant makes spontaneous sounds starting at 3-4 months
One-word stage- uses one word to communicate big meanings at 1-2 years old
Two word stage- uses two words to communicate meanings- called telegraphic speech at age 2
Skinner- thought that we can explain language development through social learning theory
Chomsky- we acquire language too quickly for it to be learned; we have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language
Thought
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity- idea that language determines the way we think
Thinking without Language- we can think in words, but more often we think in mental pictures
Kohler’s Chimpanzees- exhibited that Chimps can problem solve
Intelligence
Intelligence- ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Factor analysis- statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
Charles Spearman used factor analysis to discovery his g or general intelligence
Multiple Intelligences- Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman’s g and instead came up with the concept; came up with the idea by studying savants
Sternberg’s Three Aspects of Intelligence- Analytical (academic problem solving), Creative (generating novel ideas), Practical (required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist)
Emotional Intelligence- ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions; first called social intelligence
Brain Size and Intelligence- Small +.15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores; using an MRI we found +.44 correlation with brain size and IQ score
Brain Function and Intelligence- Higher performing brains use less glucose than lower performing brains
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon set out to figure out a concept called a mental age (what a person of a particular age should know)
Modern Tests of Mental Abilities
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- consists of 11 subtests and cues us in to strengths by using factor analysis
Aptitude- test designed to predict a person’s future performance; ability for that person to learn
Achievement- test designed to assess what a person has learned
Tests must be- Standardized, reliable, valid
Standardization- test must be pre-tested to a representative sample of people and form a normal distribution or bell curve
Reliability- extent which a test yields consistent results over time
Validity- The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
