Memory, Learning, and Stages of Consciousness

Memory

• Memory- persistence of learning over time through the process of storage and retrieval of information
• Encoding- processing of info into the memory system
• Storage- retention of material over time
• Retrieval- process of getting the information out of memory storage; retrieval failure is forgetting something, or not getting the info out of storage
• Recall- retrieve information from your memory
• Recognition- identify the target from possible targets
• Flash Bulb Memory- clear moment of an emotionally significant event

Types of Memory

• Sensory- immediate initial recording of sensory information stored for just an instant and most information goes unprocessed
• Short Term- memory that holds a few items briefly; known as working memory
• Long Term- permanent and limitless storehouse of memory; includes explicit and implicit memories
• Explicit memories- episodic and semantic memories
• Implicit memories- procedural and conditioned memories
• Encoding information- primary effect, recency effect, serial positioning effect
• Spacing effect- it is better if you spread out the time you take in information; do not cram

Encoding

• Visual encoding- encoding of picture images
• Acoustic encoding- encoding of sound, especially sounds of words
• Semantic encoding- encoding of meaning
• Constructive Memory- memories are not always what they seem; Elizabeth Loftus said constructed memory is a created memory
• Forgetting- Retroactive interference is when new information blocks out old information; Proactive interference is when old information blocks new information
• Storing memories- Long term potential: long lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously

Learning

• Most learning is associative learning- certain events occur together
• Three main types of learning- Classical conditioning / operant conditioning, Observational learning / latent learning, Abstract learning / insight learning
• Classical conditioning- started with Ivan Pavlov, made up of 5 critical terms: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination
• Acquisition- initial stage of learning; Phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR thus becoming the CS
• Extinction- the diminishing if a conditioned response; will eventually happen when the UCS does not follow the CS
• Spontaneous recovery- reappearance after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response
• Generalization- tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
• Discrimination- learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
• Unconditioned response (UCR)- unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)- originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
• Conditioned Response (CR)- learned response to a previous stimulus

Stages of Consciousness

• Sleep- state of consciousness; less aware of our surroundings; includes conscious, subconscious, and unconscious

Biological Rhythms

• Annual cycles- seasonal variations (bears hibernation, season affective disorder)
• 28 day cycle- menstrual cycle
• 24 hour cycle- our circadian rhythm- 24 hour biological clock; body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day
• 90 minute cycle-sleep cycles

Sleep Stages

• 5 identified stages; takes 90 to 100 mins to pass through the stages; brain waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in; First four stages are known as NREM sleep; the fifth stage is called REM sleep
• Stage 1- Kind of awake and kind of asleep; lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night; eyes begin to roll slightly; brain produces Theta Waves (high amplitude, low frequency)(slow)
• Stage 2- "baseline" of sleep; part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep; more Theta Waves that get progressively slower; begin to show sleep spindles- short bursts of rapid brain waves
• Stage 3 and 4- Slow wave sleep; brain produces Delta waves; vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health
• Stage 5:REM Sleep - Rapid Eye Movement; called paradoxical sleep; brain is very active; dreams usually occur; body is essentially paralyzed; composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep; breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken; From REM, go back to Stage 2

Thinking, Language/Thought, and Intelligence

Thinking

• Cognition- another term for thinking, knowing, and remembering
• Concepts- mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people; similar to Piaget’s idea of schemas
• Prototypes- A mental image or best example of a category

Solving Problems

• Algorithms- A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
• Heuristics- rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; short cut
• Insight- sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; no real strategy

Obstacles to problem solving

• Confirmation Bias- tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
• Fixation- inability to see a problem from a new perspective
• Mental set- tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past
• Functional Fixedness- tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

Types of Heuristics

• Representativeness Heuristic- rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype; might cause us to ignore important information
• Availability Heuristic- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory
• Overconfidence- tendency to be more confident than correct; overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments
• Framing- The way an issued is posed
• Belief Bias- tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning; making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa
• Belief Perseverance- Clinging to initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Language and Thought

• Language- spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
• Phonemes- the smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language
• Morphemes- the smallest unit that carries meaning in a language; can be a word or part of a word 
• Grammar- system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others
• Semantics- set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language
• Syntax- rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Language Development

• Babbling Stage- the infant makes spontaneous sounds starting at 3-4 months
• One-word stage- uses one word to communicate big meanings at 1-2 years old
• Two word stage- uses two words to communicate meanings- called telegraphic speech at age 2
• Skinner- thought that we can explain language development through social learning theory 
• Chomsky- we acquire language too quickly for it to be learned; we have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language

Thought

• Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity- idea that language determines the way we think 
• Thinking without Language- we can think in words, but more often we think in mental pictures
• Kohler’s Chimpanzees- exhibited that Chimps can problem solve

Intelligence

• Intelligence- ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
• Factor analysis- statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
• Charles Spearman used factor analysis to discovery his g or general intelligence
• Multiple Intelligences- Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman’s g and instead came up with the concept; came up with the idea by studying savants 
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences- Visual/Spatial, Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Bodily/Kinesthetic, Musical/Rhythmic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Natural
• Sternberg’s Three Aspects of Intelligence- Analytical (academic problem solving), Creative (generating novel ideas), Practical (required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist)
• Emotional Intelligence- ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions; first called social intelligence
• Brain Size and Intelligence- Small +.15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores; using an MRI we found +.44 correlation with brain size and IQ score
• Brain Function and Intelligence- Higher performing brains use less glucose than lower performing brains 
• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon set out to figure out a concept called a mental age (what a person of a particular age should know)

Modern Tests of Mental Abilities 

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- consists of 11 subtests and cues us in to strengths by using factor analysis
• Aptitude- test designed to predict a person’s future performance; ability for that person to learn
• Achievement- test designed to assess what a person has learned
• Tests must be- Standardized, reliable, valid
• Standardization- test must be pre-tested to a representative sample of people and form a normal distribution or bell curve
• Reliability- extent which a test yields consistent results over time
• Validity- The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure

Developmental Psychology

• Nature vs Nurture- the way you were born vs the way you were raised
• Physical Development- focus on our physical changes over time

Prenatal Development

• Conception begins with the drop of an egg and release of 200 million sperm
• Sperm seeks out egg and attempts to penetrate eggs surface
• once sperm penetrates egg, we have a zygote
• Zygote- first stage of prenatal development; lasts about 2 weeks and consists of rapid egg division; less than half of all zygotes survive first 2 weeks; in 10 days the zygote will attach to uterine wall; outer part of zygote becomes placenta
• Embryo- develops from zygote after 2 weeks; lasts about 6 weeks; heart begins to and organs begin to develop
• Fetus- by 9 weeks; fetus by about the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of mother

Teratogens- chemical agents that can harm prenatal development such as alcohol, STDs and HIV

Healthy Newborns- turn head towards voices, see 8-12 inches from their faces , gaze longer at human like objects

• Reflexes- inborn automatic responses
• Rooting (cheek)- newborn infant is touched on cheek; the infant will turn its head towards the source of stimulation
• Sucking
• Grasping- if object is placed in baby's palm, the baby will try to grasp the object
• Moro (startle)- when startled, a baby will fling his/her limbs out then quickly retract them
• Babinski- baby's foot is stroked, he or she will spread their toes

Maturation- physical growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, regardless of environment

Cognition- all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering

Cognitive Development- Jean Piaget

Schemas- ways we interpret the world around us (concepts)

Assimilation- incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

Accomodation- changing an existing schema to adapt to new information

4 Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor (0-2)- experience world through senses; object permanence develops around 6-8 months
• Preoperational (2-7)- begins to use language to represent objects and ideas (think in symbols); egocentric- cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own; conservation- quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance
• Concrete Operational (7-11)- can demonstrate concept of conservation; learn to think logically; understanding of reversibility
• Formal Operational (12+)- abstract reasoning

Social Development

• in about a year, infants develop stranger anxiety
• Attachment- a bond with a care giver
• Konrad Lorenz discovered some animals form attachment through imprinting
• Origins of Attachment- Harry Harlow and monkeys- showed monkeys needed touch or body contact to form attachment
• Critical Period- shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development

3 types of Attachment

1. Secure Attachment- children show some distress when parent leaves, seek contact at the reunion, explore when parent is gone; play and greet when parent is present
2. Stranger Anxiety- fear of strangers that infants commonly display; beginning by about 8 months of age
3. Separation Anxiety- distress the infant shows when object of attachment leaves; peaks between 14-18 months

3 Parenting Styles

1. Authoritarian- strict standards for children's behavior
2. Permissive- gives freedom, lax parenting, no rules consistently
3. Authoritative- encourage independence; willing to bargain

Stage Theorists

• these psychologists believe we travel from stage to stage throughout our lives
• Siegmund Freud- we all have libido (sexual desire) that travels to different areas of our body throughout development

-Oral Stage (0-1)- seek pleasure through mouth

-Anal Stage (1-3)- libido focused on controlling and expelling waste

-Phallic Stage (3-6)- children first recognize gender

-Latency Stage (6-11)- libido is hidden; cooties stage

-Genital Stage (11+)- libido is focused on their genitals; experience sexual feelings towards others

Adolescence/ Adulthood

• Adolescence- transition period from childhood to adulthood
• Puberty- period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
• Landmarks for puberty- Menarche for girls and first ejaculation for boys
• Adulthood- all physical abilities essentially peak by mid twenties
• physical milestones- menopause- the natural ending of a woman's ability to reproduce; men do not experience anything like menopause 

Types of Intelligence

• Crystallized-accumulated knowledge and increases with age
• Fluid- ability to solve problems quickly and think abstractly 

5 Stages of Death

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance

Biological School/ Nervous System

Nervous System- starts with an individual nerve cell called a neuron

Neuron Firing- resting potential: slightly negative charge; reach the threshold when enough neurotransmitters reach dendrites; finally goes into action potential (firing)

• All or None Response- idea that either the neuron fires or it doesn't- no part way firing

Types of Neurotransmitters

• Acetycholine (ACH)- deals with motor movement and memory, linked to alzheimer's
• Dopamine- deals with motor movement and alertness; lack of dopamine leads to Parkinson's; too much leads to schizophrenia
• Serotonin- involved in mood control
• Endorphins- involved in pain control; many addictive drugs
• Gaba- major inhibitory neurotransmitters
• Glutamine- immune system and brain function

Drugs

• Agonists- make neuron fire
• Antagonists- stop neural firing
• Reuptake Inhibitors- block neurotransmitters from entering the neuron

Types of Neurons

• Sensory Neurons-take info from senses to the brain
• Inter Neurons- take messages from sensory neurons to brain
• Motor Neurons- takes information from brain to rest of the body

Nervous Systems

• Central- brain and spinal cord; inter neuron
• Peripheral- all nerves not encased in bone; everything but brain and spinal cord
• Somatic- controls voluntary muscle movement; uses motor neurons
• Autonomic- controls the automatic functions of the body
• Sympathetic- fight or flight response; automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils
• Parasympathetic- automatically slows down after stressful event; slows down heart rate and breathing

• Endocrine system- system of glands that secrete hormones

The Brain

Accidents- Phineas Gage Story- personality changed after accident

Lesions-removal or destruction of some parts of the brain; frontal lobotomy

• Electroencephologram (EEG)- detects brain waves through electrical waves
• Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT SCAN)- good for tumor locating but tells nothing of function
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging- more dedicated picture of brain using magnetic field to knock electrons off axis
• Positron Emmission Topography (PET SCAN)- measures how much of a chemical the brain is using

Hindbrain

structures on top of spinal cord; controls basic biological structures

• Medulla- control of blood pressure, heart rate, breathing
• Pons- involved in facial expressions;connects hind brain to mid brain to high brain
• Cerebellum- "little brain"; coordinates fine muscle movement, voluntary muscle

Mid Brain- coordinates simple movements with sensory information

• Reticular Formation- controls arousal and ability to focus

Forebrain- what makes us human; largest part of brain

• Thalamus- switchboard of brain; receives sensory signal from spinal cord and sends them to other parts of brain; every sense except smell
• Hypothalamus- controls and regulates body temp, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and endocrine system
• Hippocampus- involved in the processing and storage of memories
• Amygdala- involved in how we process memory; more involved with volatile emotion
• Cerebral Cortex- made up of densely backed neurons called "gray matter; divided into 2 hemispheres. Left deals with logic and sequential tasks; Right deals with spatial and creative tasks

Lobes

• Frontal- abstract thought and emotional control; contains motor cortex which sends to our body controlling muscle movements; contains Broca's area which controls muscles for producing speech
• Parietal- contains sensory cortex: receives incoming touch sensations from rest of the body; mostly made up of association areas
• Occipital- deals with vision
• Temporal- processes sound sensed by our ears; contains Wernicke's area which deals with language comprehension  

Social Psychology

Social Thinking
Attribution Theory- we usually give a casual explanation for a person's behavior; credit the behavior to the situation or disposition
Fundamental Attribution Theory- underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate personal disposition

Attitudes

• belief or feeling that predisposes someone to react a certain way
• Foot In the Door Phenomenon- people who first agreed to a small request to comply later to a bigger request
• Door In Face Phenomenon- people who say no to a large request comply to a smaller one
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory- people don't like when they have conflicting attitudes, or their actions don't match their attitudes

Social Influence

• Conformity- adjusting behavior to agree with the group
• Normative Social Influence- influence from a person's desire to gain approval from a group
• Informational Social Influence- influence from one's willingness to accept others' opinions

Group Influence

• Social Facilitation- improved performance when other people are around
• Yerkes-Dodson Law- optimal level of arousal for the best performance of any task
• Social Loafing- people in a group will exert less effort than if they were working alone
• Deindividuation- loss of self awareness and self restraint in group situations
• Group Polarization- group attitude is one of extremes
• Groupthink- desire for harmony in decision making overrides common sense

Social Relations

• Prejudice- unjustifiable attitude towards a group of people
• Stereotype- generalized belief about a group of people

Social Inequalities

• Ingroup- the group you are in
• Outgroup- anyone outside your ingroup
• Ingroup Bias- tendency to favor your ingroup
• Scapegoat Theory- unfairly blaming others for a problem

Aggression-any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

• Frustration Aggressive Principle- frustration generates anger which leads to aggression

Conflict- incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

Attraction

• Mere Exposure Effect- repeated exposure breeds liking
• Reciprocal liking- more likely to like someone who likes you
• Similarity- breeds content

Love

• Passionate Love- aroused state of intense positive absorption
• Compassionate Love- deep affectional attachment; equity and self-disclosure make this work

Altruism- unselfish regard for the welfare of others

• Bystander Effect- people are less willing to help if there are others around
• Social Exchange Theory- social behavior is an exchange where we maximize benefits and minimize costs

Motivation

•  Motivation-psychological process that directs and maintains behavior toward a goal
• Instinct Theory- motivated by our inborn automated behaviors such as hunger or sleep; social includes things such as play
• Drive Theory- biological internal motivation (homeostasis)
• Incentive Theory- environmental motivation; outside forces
• Drive Reduction Theory- when there is a need or drive, there is motivation to reduce the need or drive

Hunger

• comes from the hypothalamus in the brain, not the stomach
• glucose provides major source of energy for body tissue
• insulin converts glucose to fat

Hypothalamus

• Lateral- stimulation causes hunger
• Ventromedial- stimulation causes feeling of fullness
• Set Point Theory- acts as a thermostat to maintain weight

Eating Disorders

• Bulimia Nervosa- characterized by binge eating and purging
• Anorexia Nervosa- starve themselves to below 85% of normal body weight; see themselves as fat; mostly affects women
• Obesity- severely overweight to the point where it causes health issues

Achievement Motivation

• Intrinsic- internal rewards such as enjoyment or satisfaction
• Extrinsic- outside rewards such as money, popularity, or grades
• Over Justification- reward for doing something you like to do results in seeking rewards as motivation for doing the task (lowers intrinsic motivation)

Management Theory

•  Theory X- employees work for benefits or if threatened; extrinsic motivation; Maslow's lower needs 
• Theory Y- employees internally motivated to do good work; intrinsic motivation; Maslow's higher needs

Emotion

Emotion- response of the whole organism

• James-Lange Theory of Emotion- experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion arousing stimuli
• Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion- emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger
• Schachter's Two-Factor Theory of Emotion- to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

Polygraph- machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies by measuring physiological responses accompanying emotion such as perspiration, cardiovascular, and breathing changes

Experienced Emotion

• Amygdala- neural key to fear learning
• Catharsis- emotional release; catharsis hypothesis is releasing aggressive energy which relieves aggressive urges
• Feel Good, Do Good Phenomenon- people tend to be helpful when already in a good mood
• Adaptation-Level-Phenomenon- form judgments relative to a "neutral" level
• Relative Deprivation- perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself